Primary sources from credible institutions, dated and free to read. Each one says who pays.
CountedScale: household
The State of Food and Agriculture 2024
FAO · November 2024
Hidden costs of about $12 trillion a year across 156 countries, roughly 70% from unhealthy diets.
The checkout price leaves out about $12 trillion a year, mostly paid later in hospitals.
Who paysHouseholds, later, in clinics.
CountedScale: community / watershed
Global Policy Report
Food System Economics Commission · January 2024
$15 trillion a year unaccounted: $11T health, $3T environment, $1T poverty.
Food's off-book debt is larger than its sales.
Who paysTaxpayers and the sick.
CountedScale: organization
Mobilizing Private Investment to Scale Regenerative Agriculture
Keystone Policy Center + PepsiCo · September 2026
A 14-organization roundtable found the barrier is not farmer willingness.
The farmer was willing; the financial system around the farm wasn't.
Who paysThe paper proposes that taxpayers co-invest.
CountedScale: organization (the farm)
Cover-crop economics, ERR-353
USDA Economic Research Service · June 2025
Cover crops are often unprofitable in the short term; the benefits land off the farm, later.
The farmer pays for cover crops this year; downstream water users collect the benefit later.
Who paysThe farmer, up front.
CountedScale: organization
Cover crops and crop-insurance losses
Aglasan et al., American Journal of Agricultural Economics · August 2024
Cover crops reduce crop-insurance losses from extreme weather. Premiums don't reflect it. Iowa's $5-an-acre discount helped bring in over a million cover-crop acres.
The insurance pool collects a dividend that nobody books.
Who paysTaxpayer-backed crop insurance collects the dividend, uncounted.
CountedScale: household
Food Waste Index Report 2024
UN Environment Programme · 2024
1.05 billion tonnes wasted in 2022. Only 21 countries count food waste in their climate plans.
One-fifth of food reaching consumers is thrown away, and most national climate plans leave it out.
Who paysEveryone downstream of the bin.
CountedScale: organization
From Surplus to Solutions
ReFED · February 2025
In the US: 73.9 million tons, $382 billion, 31% of the food supply. A $16 billion-a-year fix returns 3.8 times its cost.
Most of the waste is counted now. The fix is priced, and it pays back.
Who paysRight now, everyone. The fix pays for itself.
CountedScale: organization (the farm)
Economics of soil health systems on 30 U.S. farms
Soil Health Institute · 2023
Real farm ledgers from 20 states. 42% of corn farms reported yield gains.
Built from actual farm books, not models.
Who paysIt resolves toward the farmer profiting, eventually.